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Dymo Labelwriter Turbo 2015 You Need Know Hybrid Vehicles

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Vehicle using ii or more power sources

For a vehicle that combines the electrical motor with Water ice generator power and battery power or concurrent configuration, run into Hybrid electric vehicle. For other types of hybrid transportation, see Hybrid vehicle (disambiguation).

A hybrid vehicle is one that uses two or more distinct types of power, such as submarines that use diesel when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store free energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.

The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that the different motors work improve at dissimilar speeds; the electric motor is more efficient at producing torque, or turning power, and the combustion engine is better for maintaining high speed (ameliorate than a typical electric motor). Switching from i to the other at the proper time while speeding up yields a win-win in terms of energy efficiency, as such that translates into greater fuel efficiency, for example.

Vehicle type [edit]

2-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles [edit]

Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a uncomplicated form of a hybrid, powered by an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the passenger's muscles. Early prototype motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principle.

  • In a parallel hybrid bike human and motor torques are mechanically coupled at the pedal or one of the wheels, e.1000. using a hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connectedness to a cycle using a transmission chemical element. Most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this blazon.[1]
  • In a serial hybrid bicycle (SHB) (a kind of chainless bicycle) the user pedals a generator, charging a battery or feeding the motor, which delivers all of the torque required. They are commercially available, being simple in theory and manufacturing.[two]

The offset published epitome of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel (U.s. Patent iii'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite[3] SHB with ability electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a "Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb" for his 1995 diploma thesis. In 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Practical Sciences built an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP 1165188). Until 2005 they built several image SH tricycles and quadricycles.[4] In 1999 Harald Kutzke described an "active cycle": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation.

  • A series hybrid electric-petroleum wheel (SHEPB) is powered by pedals, batteries, a petrol generator, or plug-in charger - providing flexibility and range enhancements over electric-simply bicycles.

A SHEPB prototype fabricated by David Kitson in Australia[5] in 2014 used a lightweight brushless DC electrical motor from an aerial drone and small paw-tool sized internal combustion engine, and a 3D printed drive organization and lightweight housing, birthday weighing less than four.5 kg. Agile cooling keeps plastic parts from softening. The prototype uses a regular electric bicycle charge port.

Heavy vehicle [edit]

Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electrical to ability railway locomotives, buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. A diesel/turbine engine drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump, which powers electrical/hydraulic motors - strictly an electrical/hydraulic manual (not a hybrid), unless it tin can accept power from outside. With big vehicles, conversion losses decrease and the advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements become more prominent, especially when powering multiple drives — e.thousand. driven wheels or propellers. Until recently almost heavy vehicles had fiddling secondary free energy storage, due east.1000. batteries/hydraulic accumulators — excepting non-nuclear submarines, i of the oldest production hybrids, running on diesel fuel while surfaced and batteries when submerged. Both serial and parallel setups were used in Earth War II-era submarines.

Track send [edit]

Europe
The new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian visitor Bombardier for service in France is diesel/electrical motors, using 1500 or 25000 V on different runway systems.[seven] It was tested in Rotterdam, holland with Railfeeding, a Genesee & Wyoming visitor.

Red china
The First Hybrid Evaluating locomotive was designed by track research heart Matrai in 1999 and congenital in 2000. Information technology was an EMD G12 locomotive upgraded with batteries, a 200 kW diesel generator, and iv Ac motors.

Japan
Japan's first hybrid railroad train with significant energy storage is the KiHa E200, with roof-mounted lithium ion batteries.[viii]

Bharat
Indian railway launched one of its kind CNG-Diesel hybrid trains in January 2015. The railroad train has a 1400 hp engine which uses fumigation applied science. The first of these trains is gear up to run on the 81 km long Rewari-Rohtak route.[9] CNG is less-polluting alternative for diesel and petrol and is pop equally an alternative fuel in India. Already many ship vehicles such as automobile-rickshaws and buses run on CNG fuel.

Northward America
In the US, General Electric made a locomotive with sodium - nickel chloride (Na-NiCl2) battery storage. They expect ≥x% fuel economy.[x] [ failed verification ]

Variant diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid (GK) switching/yard engines congenital past Canada's Railpower Technologies, with lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 hp electric motors, and a new clean-burning ~160 hp diesel generator. No fuel is wasted for idling — ~60–85% of the time for these types of locomotives. Information technology is unclear if regenerative braking is used; but in principle, information technology is easily utilized.

Since these engines typically need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery pack's weight is a negligible penalty.[ citation needed ] The diesel generator and batteries are unremarkably built on an existing "retired" "thou" locomotive'southward frame. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused. Fuel savings of xl–60% and upwards to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over a "typical" older switching/g engine. The advantages hybrid cars have for frequent starts and stops and idle periods utilise to typical switching yard use.[eleven] "Green Goat" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific, BNSF, Kansas City Southern Railway and Marriage Pacific among others.

Cranes [edit]

Railpower Technologies engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems are testing a hybrid diesel-electric power unit with battery storage for apply in Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The free energy used to elevator the containers can be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel and emission reductions of 50–70% are predicted past Railpower engineers.[12] Commencement systems are expected to be operational in 2007.[thirteen]

Road ship, commercial vehicles [edit]

Hybrid systems are coming into use for trucks, buses and other heavy highway vehicles. Pocket-sized fleet sizes and installation costs are compensated by fuel savings,[14] [ needs update ] with advances such equally college capacity, lowered bombardment cost, etc. Toyota, Ford, GM and others are introducing hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced the Kenworth T270 Course six that for city usage seems to exist competitive.[15] [sixteen] FedEx and others are investing in hybrid commitment vehicles — particularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first.[17] As of December 2013[update] FedEx is trialling two delivery trucks with Wrightspeed electric motors and diesel generators; the retrofit kits are claimed to pay for themselves in a few years. The diesel fuel engines run at a constant RPM for peak efficiency.[xviii]

In 1978 students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Protrude to a petro-hydraulic hybrid with off-the shelf components. A machine rated at 32 mpg was returning 75 mpg with the 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine, and reached 70 mph.[19]

In the 1990s, engineers at EPA's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory developed a petro-hydraulic powertrain for a typical American sedan car. The test auto accomplished over 80 mpg on combined EPA metropolis/highway driving cycles. Dispatch was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a one.nine liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the cost.[20] Under EPA testing, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Trek returned 32 mpg (7.iv 50/100 km) City, and 22 mpg (xi L/100 km) highway.[20] [21] UPS currently has two trucks in service using this engineering.[22]

Armed services off-route vehicles [edit]

Since 1985, the US military has been testing series hybrid Humvees[23] [24] and have plant them to evangelize faster acceleration, a stealth fashion with low thermal signature, near silent functioning, and greater fuel economy.

Ships [edit]

Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early class of a hybrid vehicle. Another case is the diesel fuel-electrical submarine. This runs on batteries when submerged and the batteries can be recharged by the diesel fuel engine when the craft is on the surface.

Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds.

Shipping [edit]

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Commutation Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion bombardment hybrid arrangement to power an electrical motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all ability for the cruise stage of flight. During takeoff and climb, the flying segment that requires the most ability, the system draws on lightweight lithium-ion batteries.

The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built past Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which likewise carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wingspan of 16.iii meters (53 anxiety), the aeroplane will exist able to prowl at nearly 100 km/h (62 mph) on power from the fuel cell.[25]

Hybrid FanWings take been designed. A FanWing is created by 2 engines with the capability to autorotate and landing similar a helicopter.[26]

Engine type [edit]

Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles [edit]

When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most oft refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These encompass such vehicles equally the Saturn Vue, Toyota Prius, Toyota Yaris, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Ford Fusion Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid, Lexus RX 400h, and 450h, Hyundai Ioniq, and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion engines (using a variety of fuels, generally gasoline or Diesel engines) and electric motors to power the vehicle. The energy is stored in the fuel of the internal combustion engine and an electric battery set up. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.[27]

William H. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-automobile propulsion system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid 1889.[28] [29] There is no evidence that his hybrid gunkhole met with whatever success, simply he built a prototype hybrid tram and sold a small hybrid locomotive.[xxx] [31]

In 1899, Henri Pieper developed the world's first petro-electric hybrid auto. In 1900, Ferdinand Porsche adult a serial-hybrid using ii motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements with an internal combustion generator set providing the electric power; Porsche's hybrid set two-speed records.[ commendation needed ] While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the belatedly 19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to return equally much as 75 mpg with plans nonetheless sold to this original blueprint, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website.[32]

The plug-in-electrical-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more than mutual. It has the range needed in locations where at that place are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged into firm (mains) electricity for charging, besides being charged while the engine is running.

Continuously outboard recharged electrical vehicle [edit]

Some battery electric vehicles can be recharged while the user drives. Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate, or overhead wires on the highway via an fastened conducting wheel or other similar mechanisms (run into conduit electric current drove). The vehicle'due south batteries are recharged past this process—on the highway—and tin can then be used commonly on other roads until the battery is discharged. For case, some of the battery-electrical locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation.

Developing an infrastructure for battery electric vehicles would provide the reward of virtually unrestricted highway range. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a major highway, this engineering could reduce the need for expensive battery systems. However, individual employ of the existing electric system is well-nigh universally prohibited. Besides, the technology for such electrical infrastructure is largely outdated and, outside some cities, not widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs could perhaps be funded by cost revenue or past dedicated transportation taxes.

Hybrid fuel (dual way) [edit]

In addition to vehicles that apply 2 or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that utilise singled-out energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the aforementioned engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described higher up and to apply correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described every bit dual mode vehicles:

  • Some electric trolleybuses can switch betwixt an onboard diesel engine and overhead electrical power depending on weather condition (see dual mode autobus). In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006[update], no such design seems to have been announced.
  • Flexible-fuel vehicles tin can apply a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typically gasoline and ethanol, methanol, or biobutanol.
  • Bi-fuel vehicle: Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, then it would exist challenging to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel organization. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For example, some Chevrolet Silverado 2500 HDs can effortlessly switch between petroleum and natural gas, offer a range of over chiliad km (650 miles).[33] While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range, decreased cost of fuel, and flexibility where LPG or CNG infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase. While the The states Natural gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, information technology is increasing and in 2013 had 2600 CNG stations in place.[34] Rising gas prices may button consumers to purchase these vehicles. In 2013 when gas prices traded around The states$i.ane per litre ($iv.0/U.s. gal), the price of gasoline was US$95.5 per megawatt-hour ($28.00 per million British thermal units), compared to natural gas'southward $13.half dozen/MWh ($four.00 per 1000000 British thermal units).[35] On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline.
  • Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste material vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.
  • Ability-aid mechanisms for bicycles and other homo-powered vehicles are also included (see Motorized bicycle).

Fluid ability hybrid [edit]

Chrysler minivan, petro-hydraulic hybrid

French MDI petro-air hybrid car adult with Tata

Hydraulic hybrid and pneumatic hybrid vehicles utilize an engine or regenerative braking (or both) to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the wheels via hydraulic (liquid) or pneumatic (compressed gas) bulldoze units. In almost cases the engine is detached from the drivetrain, serving solely to charge the free energy accumulator. The manual is seamless. Regenerative braking tin exist used to recover some of the supplied drive energy back into the accumulator.

Petro-air hybrid [edit]

A French company, MDI, has designed and has running models of a petro-air hybrid engine motorcar. The organisation does non apply air motors to bulldoze the vehicle, beingness straight driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of compressed air and gasoline injected into the cylinders.[36] A cardinal aspect of the hybrid engine is the "active bedroom", which is a compartment heating air via fuel doubling the energy output.[37] Tata Motors of India assessed the blueprint phase towards full production for the Indian market place and moved into "completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific vehicle and stationary applications".[38] [39]

Petro-hydraulic hybrid [edit]

Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic concept car

Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic cutaway

Petro-hydraulic configurations have been mutual in trains and heavy vehicles for decades. The auto industry recently focused on this hybrid configuration as it at present shows promise for introduction into smaller vehicles.

In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the energy recovery rate is high and therefore the organisation is more than efficient than electric battery charged hybrids using the current electric bombardment engineering, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increment in energy economy in United states Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing.[40] The charging engine needs only to exist sized for boilerplate usage with acceleration bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged when in low energy enervating vehicle operation. The charging engine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under tests undertaken past the US Ecology Protection Agency (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per U.s. gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg‑imp) City, and 22 miles per Usa gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg‑imp) highway.[xx] [21] UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.[22]

Although petro-hydraulic hybrid technology has been known for decades and used in trains also equally very large construction vehicles, the high costs of the equipment precluded the systems from lighter trucks and cars. In the modernistic sense, an experiment proved the viability of small petro-hydraulic hybrid road vehicles in 1978. A group of students at Minneapolis, Minnesota'south Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle car to run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the-shelf components. A car rated at 32 mpg‑US (7.four L/100 km; 38 mpg‑imp) was returning 75 mpg‑U.s. (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg‑imp) with the 60 hp engine replaced by a sixteen hp engine. The experimental car reached 70 mph (110 km/h).[19]

In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at EPA'due south National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory succeeded in developing a revolutionary type of petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain that would propel a typical American sedan automobile. The test car achieved over fourscore mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a one.nine L diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add merely $700 to the base toll of the vehicle.[20]

The petro-hydraulic hybrid system has a faster and more than efficient charge/belch cycling than petro-electrical hybrids and is likewise cheaper to build. The accumulator vessel size dictates total energy storage capacity and may require more than space than an electric battery set. Any vehicle space consumed by a larger size of accumulator vessel may be showtime past the need for a smaller sized charging engine, in HP and concrete size.

Research is underway in large corporations and small companies. The focus has now switched to smaller vehicles. The arrangement components were expensive which precluded installation in smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that the power driving motors were not efficient enough at part load. A British company (Artemis Intelligent Power) made a breakthrough introducing an electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump, the Digital Displacement® motor/pump. The pump is highly efficient at all speed ranges and loads, giving feasibility to small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids.[41] The company converted a BMW machine as a test bed to prove viability. The BMW 530i, gave double the mpg in metropolis driving compared to the standard car. This test was using the standard 3,000 cc engine, with a smaller engine the figures would have been more impressive. The design of petro-hydraulic hybrids using well sized accumulators allows downsizing an engine to average power usage, not peak ability usage. Peak power is provided past the energy stored in the accumulator. A smaller more efficient constant speed engine reduces weight and liberates space for a larger accumulator.[42]

Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing engine/transmission setups. It is restrictive and far from ideal to install petro-hydraulic mechanicals into existing bodies non designed for hydraulic setups. One research project's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to maximize the packaging of petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All bulky hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of the car. Ane pattern has claimed to return 130 mpg in tests by using a big hydraulic accumulator which is too the structural chassis of the car. The pocket-sized hydraulic driving motors are incorporated inside the wheel hubs driving the wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminate the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, driveshafts, and U-joints, reducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic bulldoze with no friction brakes is used in industrial vehicles.[43] The aim is 170 mpg in average driving conditions. The energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that commonly would be wasted assists in charging the accumulator. A small fossil-fuelled piston engine sized for average ability use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at running the car for xv minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully charged accumulator that will produce a 0-60 mph acceleration speed of under 5 seconds using four wheel drive.[44] [45] [46]

In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the Usa Ecology Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for utilize in large passenger cars. In 2012 an existing product minivan was adapted to the new hydraulic powertrain for assessment.[twenty] [47] [48] [49]

PSA Peugeot Citroën exhibited an experimental "Hybrid Air" engine at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show.[50] The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by free energy harvested from braking or deceleration to power a hydraulic bulldoze which supplements power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were supplied past Robert Bosch GmbH. Mileage was estimated to be nigh 118 mpg‑U.s.a. (2 50/100 km; 142 mpg‑imp) on the Euro test cycle if installed in a Citroën C3 type of body.[51] [52] PSA Although the auto was set for product and was proven and feasible delivering the claimed results, Peugeot Citroën were unable to concenter a major manufacturer to share the high development costs and are shelving the project until a partnership can be arranged.[53]

Electrical-homo ability hybrid vehicle [edit]

Another class of a hybrid vehicle are the human-powered electric vehicles. These include such vehicles every bit the Sinclair C5, Twike, electrical bicycles, electric skateboards, and Electric motorcycles and scooters

Hybrid vehicle power train configurations [edit]

Parallel hybrid [edit]

In a parallel hybrid vehicle, an electric motor and an internal combustion engine are coupled such that they can power the vehicle either individually or together. Nearly commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor and gearbox are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving, the clutch betwixt the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gearbox is engaged. While in combustion way the engine and motor run at the aforementioned speed.

The get-go mass-production parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the 1st generation Honda Insight.

Mild parallel hybrid [edit]

These types use a mostly compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to provide auto-terminate/start features and to provide extra power assist[54] during the acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase (aka regenerative braking).

On-route examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight 2d generation, Honda CR-Z, Honda Accordance Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW seven Series hybrids, General Motors BAS Hybrids, Suzuki South-Cantankerous, Suzuki Wagon R and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.

Ability-dissever or series-parallel hybrid [edit]

In a power-split up hybrid electric drive train, there are two motors: a traction electric motor and an internal combustion engine. The power from these ii motors can be shared to bulldoze the wheels via a ability split device, which is a elementary planetary gear set. The ratio can be from 100% for the combustion engine to 100% for the traction electrical motor, or annihilation in between. The combustion engine can act as a generator charging the batteries.

Modern versions such every bit the Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive accept a second electric motor/generator connected to the planetary gear. In cooperation with the traction motor/generator and the power-split device, this provides a continuously variable manual.

On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine. When maximum power is required, for example, to overtake, the traction electric motor is used to assist. This increases the available power for a brusque period, giving the effect of having a larger engine than actually installed. In nigh applications, the combustion engine is switched off when the car is wearisome or stationary thereby reducing curbside emissions.

Passenger car installations include Toyota Prius, Ford Escape and Fusion, as well as Lexus RX400h, RX450h, GS450h, LS600h, and CT200h.

Series hybrid [edit]

A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle is driven by an electrical motor, functioning as an electric vehicle while the battery pack energy supply is sufficient, with an engine tuned for running every bit a generator when the battery pack is insufficient. At that place is typically no mechanical connection between the engine and the wheels, and the primary purpose of the range extender is to accuse the bombardment. Series-hybrids have too been referred to as extended range electric vehicle, range-extended electrical vehicle, or electric vehicle-extended range (EREV/REEV/E'er).

The BMW i3 with Range Extender is a production series-hybrid. It operates equally an electric vehicle until the bombardment charge is depression, and and so activates an engine-powered generator to maintain power, and is besides available without the range extender. The Fisker Karma was the first series-hybrid production vehicle.

When describing cars, the battery of a series-hybrid is usually charged by beingness plugged in - only a series-hybrid may also allow for a battery to just act as a buffer (and for regeneration purposes), and for the electric motor'due south power to be supplied constantly by a supporting engine. Series arrangements have been common in diesel fuel-electric locomotives and ships. Ferdinand Porsche effectively invented this arrangement in speed-record-setting racing cars in the early 20th century, such equally the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid. Porsche named his arrangement "Organization Mixt" and it was a wheel hub motor design, where each of the 2 front end wheels was powered past a separate motor. This system was sometimes referred to as an electric transmission, as the electrical generator and driving motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle could not move unless the internal combustion engine was running.

In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid coach sold in Japan.[55] GM introduced the Chevy Volt series plug-in hybrid in 2010, aiming for an all-electrical range of 40 mi (64 km),[56] though this car too has a mechanical connexion between the engine and drivetrain.[57] Supercapacitors combined with a lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid arrangement.[58]

Nissan Annotation e-power is an example of a series hybrid technology since 2016 in Japan.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle [edit]

Another subtype of hybrid vehicles is the plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle. The plug-in hybrid is usually a general fuel-electrical (parallel or series) hybrid with increased energy storage capacity, unremarkably through a lithium-ion battery, which allows the vehicle to drive on all-electric mode a distance that depends on the battery size and its mechanical layout (series or parallel). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the finish of the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine.[59] [60]

This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by fugitive – or at to the lowest degree minimizing – the use of ICE during daily driving. Equally with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for instance in CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.

For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive then long as the electrical energy existence used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel fuel that they would take otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil revenue enhancement as a major income source. This is more often than not non the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic client, however that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers as well offer price benefits for off-meridian night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.

Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians [edit]

A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined hybrid electric vehicle accidents that involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to accidents involving internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle. For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, bankroll up, entering, or leaving a parking infinite (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most pronounced), HEVs were twice every bit likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than ICEVs. For crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a college incident rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. However, in that location was no statistically meaning difference between the types of vehicles when they were driving directly.[61]

Several automakers adult electrical vehicle warning sounds designed to alarm pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electrical vehicle, plug-in hybrid electrical vehicles and all-electric vehicles (EVs) travelling at depression speeds. Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the bullheaded, and others enlightened of the vehicle's presence while operating in all-electric mode.[62] [63] [64] [65]

Vehicles in the marketplace with such safety devices include the Nissan Foliage, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, Honda FCX Clarity, Nissan Fuga Hybrid/Infiniti M35, Hyundai ix35 FCEV, Hyundai Sonata Hybrid, 2012 Honda Fit EV, the 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid, 2012 Lexus CT200h, and all the Prius family of cars.

Ecology issues [edit]

Fuel consumption and emissions reductions [edit]

The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:

  1. Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller engine size more for boilerplate usage rather than height power usage. A smaller engine can have fewer internal losses and lower weight.
  2. Having significant battery storage capacity to shop and reuse recaptured energy, peculiarly in stop-and-get traffic typical of the metropolis driving bicycle.
  3. Recapturing significant amounts of free energy during braking that are normally wasted equally heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator;

Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, merely that are frequently plant on hybrid vehicles include:

  1. Using Atkinson wheel engines instead of Otto wheel engines for improved fuel economy.
  2. Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle periods.
  3. Improving aerodynamics; (function of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag on the automobile. A box-shaped automobile or truck has to exert more than force to move through the air causing more than stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a motorcar is a proficient fashion to help better the fuel economy and also improve vehicle handling at the same time.
  4. Using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smoothen ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical drag, once again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more than inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by pick of carcass structure and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and and so improving fuel economy any the power source.
  5. Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when needed; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously with traditional engine belts.

These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for metropolis traffic where there are frequent stops, benumbed, and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced, specially at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous loftier-speed highway use, these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.

Hybrid vehicle emissions [edit]

Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or fifty-fifty lower than the recommended level prepare by the EPA (Environmental Protection Bureau). The recommended levels they suggest for a typical charabanc should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of COii. The 3 nigh popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Borough, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards fifty-fifty college by producing 4.i, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by upwardly to 90% and cut carbon dioxide emissions in one-half.[66]

More than fossil fuel is needed to build hybrid vehicles than conventional cars but reduced emissions when running the vehicle more outweigh this.[67]

However, hybrid COtwo emissions have frequently been understated. In one written report using real-world driving data, it was shown they utilize on boilerplate 120g of CO2 per km instead of the 44g per km in official tests.[68]

Toyota insists that three Hybrid vehicles equal 1 Battery electrical vehicle in COtwo reduction effect from carbon neutrality viewpoint which means reducing CO2 emissions to zero throughout the entire life cycle of a product, starting from procurement of raw materials, manufacturing, and transportation to utilise, recycling, and disposal.[69]

Environmental impact of hybrid car battery [edit]

Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is all the same an issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid automobile battery.[70] [71] Today nearly hybrid automobile batteries are ane of ii types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or two) Lithium-ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of petrol automobile starter batteries today.[72] There are many types of batteries. Some are far more than toxic than others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the 2 mentioned above.[73]

The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metallic hydride batteries—the type currently used in hybrids—are much lower than batteries like atomic number 82 acrid or nickel cadmium according to ane source.[74] Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult.[75] In general various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such equally nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats.[76] [77] [78] The principal nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive electrode.

The lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for apply in hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries evangelize performance that helps to protect the surroundings with features such equally improved charge efficiency without memory effect.[79] The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel–metal hydride bombardment jail cell while simultaneously storing big quantities of electricity also.[72] The batteries also produce college output (boosting vehicle power), higher efficiency (fugitive wasteful use of electricity), and provides first-class durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle.[80] Additionally, the apply of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% ameliorate than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in COtwo emissions helping to prevent global warming. [81]

Charging [edit]

At that place are two different levels of charging in plug-in hybrids. Level one charging is the slower method as it uses a 120 Five/15 A single-stage grounded outlet. Level ii is a faster method; existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208 Five or 240 V (at up to 80 A, xix.two kW). It may require dedicated equipment and a connection installation for domicile or public units, although vehicles such equally the Tesla have the ability electronics on board and need just the outlet.[82] The optimum charging window for Lithium-ion batteries is iii-4.ii Five. Recharging with a 120 volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1–4 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately thirty minutes to reach 80% charge. Three of import factors—altitude on charge, price of charging, and time to charge [83] In society for hybrids to run on electric ability, the car must perform the activity of braking in social club to generate some electricity. The electricity then gets discharged about finer when the automobile accelerates or climbs upwards an incline. In 2014, hybrid electric machine batteries tin can run on solely electricity for lxx–130 miles (110–210 km) on a unmarried charge. Hybrid bombardment capacity currently ranges from 4.four kWh to 85 kWh on a fully electrical car. On a hybrid motorcar, the bombardment packs currently range from 0.six kWh to ii.4 kWh representing a large difference in utilise of electricity in hybrid cars.[84]

Raw materials increasing costs [edit]

There is an impending increment in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars.[85] For example, the rare-earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors and bombardment systems in hybrid propulsion systems.[85] [86] Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors.[87]

Nearly all the rare-world elements in the world come from China,[88] and many analysts believe that an overall increment in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012.[85] In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare-earth elements accept resulted in an unknown amount of supply.[86] [89]

A few non-Chinese sources such every bit the advanced Hoidas Lake projection in northern Canada as well as Mount Weld in Australia are currently under development;[89] however, the barriers to entry are high[xc] and require years to go online.

How hybrid-electric vehicles piece of work [edit]

Hybrids-Electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the advantage of gasoline engines and electric motors. The key areas for efficiency or operation gains are regenerative braking, dual power sources, and less idling.[91]

  • Regenerative braking. [ further explanation needed ]The drivetrain can be used to convert kinetic free energy (from the moving auto) into stored electrical energy (batteries). The same electric motor that powers the drivetrain is used to resist the motion of the drivetrain. This applied resistance from the electric motor causes the bike to wearisome downward and simultaneously recharge the batteries.
  • Dual ability. Power tin can come up from either the engine, motor, or both depending on driving circumstances. Boosted power to assist the engine in accelerating or climbing might be provided by the electric motor. Or more than usually, a smaller electric motor provides all of the power for low-speed driving weather condition and is augmented by the engine at higher speeds.
  • Automated start/shutoff. It automatically shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a end and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed down. This automation is much simpler with an electric motor. Also, run into dual ability above.

Alternative green vehicles [edit]

Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative energy sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to employ alternative fuel limerick (i.e. biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable energy sources.

Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers automated on-demand non-cease transportation, on a network of specially built guideways.

Peugeot/Citroën hybrid vehicle [edit]

Peugeot and Citroën have announced that they too are edifice a car that uses compressed air as an energy source. Even so, the automobile they are designing uses a hybrid organisation which too uses a gasoline engine (which is used for propelling the machine over lxx km/h, or when the compressed air tank has been depleted.[92]

Marketing [edit]

Adaption [edit]

Automakers spend around $US8 million in marketing Hybrid vehicles each year. With combined attempt from many car companies, the Hybrid industry has sold millions of Hybrids.[ citation needed ]

Hybrid automobile companies like Toyota, Honda, Ford, and BMW have pulled together to create a movement of Hybrid vehicle sales pushed past Washington lobbyists to lower the globe'due south emissions and go less reliant on our petroleum consumption.[ commendation needed ]

In 2005, sales went beyond 200,000 Hybrids, but in retrospect that but reduced the global utilize for gasoline consumption by 200,000 gallons per solar day — a tiny fraction of the 360 1000000 gallons used per mean solar day.[ citation needed ] Co-ordinate to Bradley Berman writer of Driving Change—1 Hybrid at a fourth dimension, "cold economic science shows that in real dollars, except for a cursory fasten in the 1970s, gas prices have remained remarkably steady and inexpensive. Fuel continues to represent a modest role of the overall cost of owning and operating a personal vehicle".[93] Other marketing tactics include greenwashing which is the "unjustified cribbing of environmental virtue."[94] Temma Ehrenfeld explained in an commodity by Newsweek. Hybrids may be more than efficient than many other gasoline motors as far as gasoline consumption is concerned just every bit far as being light-green and practiced for the environment is completely inaccurate.

Hybrid machine companies take a long fourth dimension to get if they expect to really go green. Co-ordinate to Harvard business professor Theodore Levitt states "managing products" and "meeting customers' needs", "y'all must adapt to consumer expectations and apprehension of future desires."[95] This ways people buy what they want, if they want a fuel efficient automobile they purchase a Hybrid without thinking about the actual efficiency of the product. This "dark-green myopia" equally Ottman calls it, fails because marketers focus on the greenness of the production and not on the actual effectiveness.

Researchers and analysts say people are fatigued to the new engineering, likewise as the convenience of fewer fill-ups. Secondly, people find it rewarding to own the ameliorate, newer, flashier, and then-called greener motorcar.

Misleading advertising [edit]

In 2019 the term "self-charging hybrid" became prevalent in advertising, though cars referred to past this name do not offering whatever unlike functionality than a standard hybrid electric vehicle provides. The only self-charging consequence is in energy recovery via regenerative braking, which is also truthful of plug-in hybrids, fuel cell electrical vehicles and battery electric vehicles.[96]

In Jan 2020, using this term has been prohibited in Kingdom of norway, for misleading advertising by Toyota and Lexus.[97] "Our merits is based on the fact that customers never accept to accuse the battery of their vehicle, as it is recharged during the vehicle use. There is no intention to mislead customers, on the opposite: the betoken is to conspicuously explain the difference with plug-in hybrid vehicles."

Adoption rate [edit]

While the adoption rate for hybrids in the US is small today (2.2% of new car sales in 2011),[98] this compares with a 17.one% share of new car sales in Japan in 2011,[99] and information technology has the potential to be very large over time as more than models are offered and incremental costs refuse due to learning and scale benefits. Withal, forecasts vary widely. For instance, Bob Lutz, a long-time skeptic of hybrids, indicated he expects hybrids "will never comprise more than than ten% of the US auto market place."[100] Other sources as well expect hybrid penetration rates in the US will remain nether x% for many years.[101] [102] [103]

More optimistic views as of 2006 include predictions that hybrids would boss new car sales in the US and elsewhere over the next 10 to xx years.[104] Another approach, taken past Saurin Shah, examines the penetration rates (or S-curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid and electrical vehicles in an attempt to gauge how quickly the vehicle stock could exist hybridized and/or electrified in the Usa. The analogs are (one) the electric motors in United states of america factories in the early 20th century, (2) diesel-electric locomotives on Usa railways in the 1920–1945 period, (3) a range of new automotive features/technologies introduced in the US over the by fifty years, and 4) due east-bike purchases in Mainland china over the past few years. These analogs collectively suggest it would have at least 30 years for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the US passenger vehicle stock.[105]

The EPA expects the combined marketplace share of new gasoline hybrid and plug-in hybrid light-duty vehicles to reach ix.9% for the 2021 model yr from 5.iv% in the 2020 model twelvemonth.[106]

European union 2020 regulation standards [edit]

The European Parliament, Quango, and European Commission take reached an agreement which is aimed at reducing the boilerplate CO2 passenger car emissions to 95 g/km by 2020, co-ordinate to a European Commission press release.

Co-ordinate to the release, the central details of the understanding are as follows:

Emissions target: The agreement will reduce average CO2 emissions from new cars to 95 grand/km from 2020, as proposed past the Commission. This is a 40% reduction from the mandatory 2015 target of 130 yard/km. The target is an average for each manufacturer'due south new car fleet; it allows OEMs to build some vehicles that emit less than the average and some that emit more. 2025 target: The Commission is required to propose a further emissions reduction target by the end-2015 to take effect in 2025. This target will be in line with the European union's long-term climate goals. Super credits for low-emission vehicles: The Regulation will give manufacturers additional incentives to produce cars with CO2 emissions of 50 g/km or less (which will be electric or plug-in hybrid cars). Each of these vehicles will be counted equally 2 vehicles in 2020, 1.67 in 2021, 1.33 in 2022, and and then as one vehicle from 2023 onwards. These super credits volition help manufacturers further reduce the average emissions of their new car fleet. However, to prevent the scheme from undermining the environmental integrity of the legislation, there volition be a two.5 k/km cap per manufacturer on the contribution that super credits can make to their target in any twelvemonth.[107]

See also [edit]

  • Culling propulsion
  • Bivalent (engine)
  • Diesel-electric
  • Efficient energy use
  • Electric vehicle
  • Global Hybrid Cooperation
  • Global warming
  • Human being-electric hybrid vehicle
  • Hybrid electric vehicle
  • Hybrid locomotive
  • Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
  • List of hybrid vehicles
  • Multifuel stove
  • Plug-in hybrid
  • PNGV
  • Solid oxide fuel cell
  • Triple-hybrid

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External links [edit]

  • Media related to Hybrid-powered vehicles at Wikimedia Commons
  • Hybrid Taxi Airplane pilot Program
  • Classification of Hybrid Cars
  • The Future of Flight (Obese Pelicans to Shape-Shifting Switchblades)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle

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